The Rural-urban fringe

Mark Schemes and Examiner's Comments

AS question

1. Environmental consequences that may be referred to include:
   
   • expansion of urban areas on to surrounding rural areas (including woodland)
   • expansion draws in water supplies/power/food from further away with the resulting environmental consequences in those areas
   • environmental problems within the urban areas, notably air and water pollution.
   
   

   Level 1	An over-generalised answer with a dependence upon the use of non-specific words such as pollution. Answer will also tend to be restricted to only one environmental problem.	1-3
   Level 2	Answer very much has a focus on environmental consequences, with at least two being examined in a specific manner. References are made to appropriate examples.	4-5
   Level 3	A well-ordered answer that is expressed in a way so that a range of environmental consequences are examined, supported by specific information.	6-7

   
   
   Comments
   
   There is information contained within this case study that when used would enable you to produce an answer that could be assessed at the higher levels of the mark scheme. Figure 10, in particular, provides a list of issues present on the rural-urban fringe and includes examples of land use that can have a detrimental effect upon the rural landscape. The case study of the Epsom Hospital Cluster indicates that the main adverse consequence has been the increase in traffic volume particularly around Epsom town centre and on major roads into London. This, and other housing developments within the same area, therefore must have led to an increase in air pollution on this southern fringe of the conurbation.
   
   
2. The advantages of greenfield locations on the urban fringe include:
   • edge of the urban area has cheaper land values
   • plenty of space available for stadium capable of holding large crowds
   • room for expansion if necessary
   • good communications by road on the urban fringe of many large centres, site will be close to dual carriageways, ring roads and/or motorway junctions
   • police can better manage traffic and keep it flowing
   • better access for private car users, particularly those from other urban areas
   • plenty of room to construct car parks
   • space available for complementary facilities such as shops, hotels and restaurants.
   
   

   Level 1	Refers only to one advantage, such as the available space. Could also refer to disadvantages of urban fringe locations.	1-3
   Level 2	Commentary on one type of advantage done in a competent manner. At this level candidates should be covering at least three of the bullet points given above.	4-5
   Level 3	Covers both the space and travel/parking element competently. Reference is also made to land values. Comment is at a more sophisticated level, such as pointing out that as most people using such leisure facilities are car owners, parking becomes a priority. Also, the most affluent population tends to live close to the urban fringe and such facilities will be more accessible to them. Answer may be illustrated with examples.	6-7

   
   Comments

   This question is about football clubs, but it could equally be about any activities that require large areas of land on the urban fringe. Other such activities include shopping centres, other leisure facilities (including cinema complexes), and business and science parks. This case study of the south-western sector of London’s rural-urban fringe contains two forms of land use, both of which require large areas of land. One of them is the Epsom horse-racing course and the other a large theme park, the Chessington World of Adventures. You could use the information contained in this case study in your answer as exemplar material because the question does not require you to refer to football clubs. When it states ‘for new developments such as these’, you can take any examples of similar large space users who wish to attract a large number of people to the site. Much of what is written in the bullet points in the mark scheme could equally apply to a number of different activities.
   
   A2 question

   Various groups could be used in the answer:
   • long-standing inhabitants of the urban fringe/villages could be compared with newcomers
   • environmentalists with businesses/companies
   • politicians, both local and national, may be both in favour and against depending upon time and the circumstances of the proposal.

   Some of the effects that could be incorporated into the arguments include:
   • social – destroys some of the urban fringe communities and livelihoods
   • environmental – leads to urban sprawl and cities meeting up to become continuous urban areas. Destroys countryside and wildlife habitats
   • economic – many effects in this category could be positive: farmers find a greater local market for their produce; improved transport links provide better locations for business; as more businesses develop, more employment is created.
   

Level 1	Statement of views not well communicated, sometimes expressed without any clear reference to groups. In some answers, the attitudes of only one group may be covered without any attempt to examine the full question.	1-3
Level 2	Answers with a much clearer focus with alternative views and attitudes articulated. At the top of this level, there may be some attempt to comment on the relative strength of those attitudes for and against.	4-7
Level 3	Views are well communicated and expressed in a manner which shows that some are more strongly held or more significant than others. Coverage includes references to a variety of different groups. Valid examples support the answer.	8-10

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Mark Schemes and Examiner's Commentary

1. a. Suburbanisation is the outward growth of urban development to engulf surrounding villages and rural areas. It has been enabled by the growth of public and private transport systems, by which the inhabitants of the new areas were able to commute to the main town/city. The transport systems which have enabled this are railways, trams, bus and private car.
   b. Counterurbanisation is the process of depopulation from major urban areas to smaller urban centres, largely due to dissatisfaction with urban living in such large centres. The rise of new communication technologies, especially in electronic systems, may have encouraged this movement.

    

2. a. E.g. Suburbanisation.
   Evidence:
   • Development of extensive areas of housing on the edges of urban areas – some council housing estates, some private developments.
   • Existence of modern comprehensive schools and their playing fields on the edges of urban areas.
   • Areas of undeveloped and underused farmland and farm buildings –awaiting purchase and urban development.
   • Linear extensions of urban growth along routeways - roads and commuter railways.

   b. Attitudes to include:
   • Local landowner will be positive – chance to sell land at high price to developers.
   • House builders and other developers of shops and services will view this as an opportunity.
   • People who have lived in the area for long period of time will be fearful of the loss of amenity value.
   • Extensive areas of farmland and green belt will disappear forever.
   • Environmentalists will object to the loss of green belt land, as well as any areas of scenic value. Some farmers will be concerned about the problems of litter, trespass and vandalism.

    

3. E.g. Counterurbanisation.
   Evidence:
   • increased use of commuter railway station near to settlement
   • increased value of houses in the settlement
   • increase in the construction of ‘executive housing’ in the settlement
   • conversions of farm buildings to housing.

   b. Attitudes to include:
   • Local residents dislike the ‘weekenders’ who do not contribute to the stability of the village, disappear during the day/week. They have different social norms - wine drinking, barbeques, fast cars. Too ‘posh’ for the locals. Newcomers will increase the price of housing so that local people cannot afford the prices. They do not use public services, which causes their decline.
   • Newcomers will see the area as a delightful place to live, quiet and clean air. There is a lack of haste in the village, with pleasant countryside walks. They will encourage friends to move as well.
   • The local shopkeeper will see potential for more custom, but will need to modify produce sold e.g. increase in videos, alcohol, frozen food.
   • Property developers/local builders will see an increased market for new houses and conversions, an opportunity for them.
   

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Mark Schemes and Examiner's Commentary

1. Suburbanisation is the outward growth of the built-up area of a town.

   1 mark for location at edge of town. 1 mark for understanding of growth that physically extends the town area.

   • Developments in South West London may be environmental, economic or social
   • Growth of transport links and increased volume of traffic
   • New housing on the Epsom Hospital site
   • Growth of recreation facilities such as Chessington World of Adventures
   • New golf courses
   • Environmental consequences of increased air pollution, noise pollution
   

   Level 1	General description about suburbanisation. Only one development described. No explanation.	1-2
   Level 2	More than one consequence described but lacks detail of specific location. Explanation limited.	3-4
   Level 3	Description of at least three developments which are clearly located. Good explanation.	5-6

   
   
2. a. 1 mark for location at edge of city.
   1 mark for idea of strict planning zone.

   b. Select from golf courses, housing estates, woodland, farm land, recreational land such as sports fields, theme parks and race courses, stables, cemeteries, motorways and junctions, other transport routes, historic sites.
   1 mark for brief description and 1 mark for example from Figure 6.
   

   Mark scheme and examiner’s comments

1. a. This asks you to consider a variety of indicators which could be used in a definition. Explain why each one is an appropriate indicator and suggest how it could be measured.
   
   

   Level 1	A brief list of indicators.	1-2
   Level 2	A wider view of indicators suggesting how they can be measured and the limitations and difficulties of using each in isolation. An appreciation of the subjective and changing nature of definition of the rural-urban fringe.	3-5

   
   b. The command word ‘examine’ requires you to consider the causes of land use change in some depth.
   
   Remember that you are only looking at ‘cause’, so consequences of land use change are not relevant. There should be some logical organisation to your ideas. You may organise ‘causes’ historically i.e. how different causes have had an impact on land use during the 30 years or so. Alternatively you may examine causes in order of their influence/significance. The best answers will clearly address causes and focus on changes in land uses as well as give some ideas of different causes in contrasting locations such as LEDC and MEDC city fringes.

   
   You should be able to identify the following causes of land use change from the case study:
   
   • local planning decisions e.g. about the green belt
   • increases in commuting
   • population change
   • out-migration from cities
   • increasing demand for leisure activities
   • changing patterns of service provision such as the move towards new integrated hospitals
   • demand for housing
   • pressure from national and local government
   • agricultural change.
   

   Level 1	Simple list of land uses at the rural-urban fringe. Little detail. No consideration of ‘change’.	1-3
   Level 2	Simplistic description of land use change. Probably limited to ‘more housing’. Limited exemplification. Does not explain changes.	4-7
   Level 3	Recognises a range of changes with some brief/simplistic explanation. Some recognisable and relevant exemplification.	8-11
   Level 4	Describes a range of land use changes in more depth with more detailed and relevant exemplification. Offers a brief explanation of those changes.	12-15
   Level 5	Examines a range of land use changes and discusses their causes in some detail. Recognises that some changes may have several causes. Appreciates that change may be caused by factors operating at different scales. Accurate and detailed exemplification.	16-20

   
   
2. This section requires you to consider the different ways in which human activity takes place at the rural-urban fringe. You should consider the positive and negative processes which take place such as suburbanisation, expansion of traffic networks, exploitation of land for mineral resources or waste disposal, expansion of leisure facilities, destruction of habitats, conservation, planning processes. Remember the focus is on processes.

   b. There are a number of ways in which urban economies affect the rural- urban fringe. You should identify several to cover both positive and negative effects. Remember that you should include details and examples, for instance from this case study, to make your points clearly. It is not wise to rely solely on one example.
   • commuting and its environmental impacts on rural areas
   • new housing - demand for better environmental quality than that found in urban areas
   • conversion of buildings at the fringe – improve environment
   • out-migration from less desirable areas of cities
   • impact of rising house prices in desirable rural areas
   • price of land at the fringe – speculative builders
   • impact of urban planning decisions such as a green belt
   • demand for accessible recreational facilities such as golf courses
   • exploitation of rural areas for informal leisure such as cycling, walking, jogging
   • requirement for land fill and waste disposal sites to service urban economies
   • demand for water and use of rural areas for reservoirs to service urban dwellers
   • decline of local shopping facilities as urban shopping centres extend their sphere of influence
   • changing land uses to cater for urban dwellers – garden centres, leisure centres, edge of town shopping and office centres.

Level 1	Very few ideas offered. Question not really understood. Generalised comments.	1-3
Level 2	Describes some activities at the rural-urban fringe but does not understand the links to urban economies.	4-7
Level 3	Recognises links between rural and urban such as commuting and shopping. Some examples to illustrate although lacks depth. Takes a negative view of impact of urban areas on the fringe.	8-11
Level 4	Has a fair grasp of the question in terms of urban economies affecting the fringe. Good use of detail in limited number of examples.	12-15
Level 5	Explores a variety of situations in which the urban economy affects rural areas. Uses detailed and relevant examples to illustrate. Recognises the positive and negative influences of urban economies. May include comment on the scale and temporal nature of urban influence.	16-20

Synoptic mark scheme and examiner’s comments

Comments

6.2 The key word here is ‘modify’. This does not mean that human activities completely obliterate the natural landscape. Human activities may change the landscape negatively or positively. You should attempt to assess the amount of change. Clearly a variety of activities will produce a variety of human impacts and you must comment on the scale of any changes. New housing estates in themselves do not result in global warming, but the widespread extension of housing estates and consequent increase in commuting will contribute towards air pollution and global temperature rises. Similarly the scale of hedge removal does not necessarily lead to species extinction, but it certainly reduces biodiversity within the local area. Don’t forget that you should use examples from your own experience wherever possible. Write about the places and changes you have seen around you.

The best answers will recognise that modifications to the urban-rural fringe change temporally i.e. over time, and spatially i.e. in different places. They will refer to a variety of locations to exemplify the points made and they will offer a balanced argument.

6.4 The focus of this question is on the relationship between rural and urban. Rural areas at the urban fringe become very dependent on the urban area for services and communications. Alternatively, the urban area may depend on rural fringe for food, labour force, leisure activities and other services such as waste disposal.

An important element for a high level answer is the changing nature of these relationships. You need to avoid an historical narrative, but good candidates may comment on the rural-urban relationships before the development of large scale commuting, global agricultural distribution or the increase in leisure activities.

Use this case study to illustrate the role of planning decisions on rural areas, and how planning solutions for urban areas impact on the rural. Major economic developments such as Chessington World of Adventures may have rather limited impact on the local area.

Level 1	Very little accurate description or factual content. Errors or significant gaps in knowledge. Very little content relevant to the question set.	1-5
Level 2	Mainly description with generalised points and a few generalised examples. Some simple cause and effect statements. Partial coverage of the topic.	6-9
Level 3	Some effective description and examination of the main aspects of the question but limited in both range and depth of ideas. Some basic knowledge of relevant concepts. Some examples used.	10-14
Level 4	Accurate knowledge and understanding of most aspects of the question. Clear and relevant explanation with some analysis. Maps and diagrams are appropriate, accurate and linked to the answer. Good understanding of relevant concepts. Make an attempt to address the precise command of the question.	15-19
Level 5	Wide-ranging and accurate descriptive knowledge. Thorough explanation and balanced discussion of the question. Clear arguments supported by relevant examples. Makes effective comments on spatial and temporal dimensions of the question.	20-25

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Mark scheme and examiner’s comments

Answer Guidelines

(a)(i) Note it is a 2 mark definition so use the full definition from box – to be sure you could include an example.
(ii) Again a 2 mark question. Say what a green belt is, where it is found and why it has been developed. What process is it designed to stop?
(iii) Use the table shown in Figure 8. With supporting examples emphasise the mixed rural-urban nature and both attractive and ugly usage. Major landscape features to include might be intensive agricultural land use, some hobby farming, new business parks and housing estates. Leisure activities such as golf, sports fields and country parks/reservoirs also urban services such as cemeteries, and even landfill sites. There will be random areas (fly tipping) and very well conserved woodlands etc.

(b)(i) The shanty town septic fringe is one clue. Think about the outward spread of the growing urban area as a result of rural to urban migration to the edge of the city (the periphery). Equally the economic growth experienced by cities in LEDCs encourages in migration.
(ii) Issues of planning control, type of process forming the zone, value of land, what it is used for, could be useful pointers. Essentially the rural urban fringe areas in LEDCs are often lower value and uncontrolled eg shanty town development.

(c) This question is levels marked. L1 1-4 marks, L2 5-8 marks, L3 9-10 marks.
To achieve the top L3 this question requires an in depth analysis of one example such as Epsom.

Possible ideas – conflicts arise from pressures and threats on the landscape such as housing on open land, ie new and old land use. Conflicts between conservation and development. Conflicts between land uses for competing space eg dog walking and urban farming. Conflicts between groups of people – eg car users and residents, pollution is a particular issue.

Look at the case study of Epsom and Ewell – clearly as a green belt site it would be very controversial but the hospital was lying disused and empty and costing money. In general local people favoured the sites reuse provided strict conditions were met, such as providing local facilities and ensuring a mature garden area was maintained in the development. Increased traffic and its impact is currently a major issue, so give details of likely pollution issues, accident risk and congestion. A major conflict is that by building on the old hospital site this does mean more new housing (1300 units – 5000 people) on the greenbelt itself – issues of encroachment, even though the site is technically brownfield. Use the OS map to work up more detail.

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Mark Scheme and Examiner’s Comments

AS question

Level 1	An answer which is over-generalised and only introduces a limited number of changes. It lacks many of the key words and technical terms and has little reference to the cause and effect relationships which lie behind the changes. Use of the case study material is limited.	0-4
Level 2	A much more specific answer which uses the correct technical terms and introduces a reasonable number of factors relating to the rural changes. The case study is well used to illustrate the basic concepts.	5-8
Level 3	An answer that brings in a very wide range of rural changes, explains the relationships between urban growth, counterurbanisation and these changes and uses the case study effectively and in a detailed way.	9-12

Comments


1. The question asks for an explanation, and therefore it is not sufficient just to state what the changes are. The whole answer needs to be set within the context of urban sprawl, counterurbanisation and suburbanisation. The answer needs to recognise the diversity of these changes: social, economic, demographic and environmental. The causes and effects need to be recognised and explained. From the case study material, the parts which are particularly useful in the addressing of the question are: the chart of negative and positive changes on the urban fringe, Figure 3, Figure 5 and the sections on land use change in the area selected on London’s southern fringe. The selected material from the case study needs to intersperse the arguments and explanations rather than standing in isolation.
   
   At A2 the case study relates to two of the topics on the Synoptic paper:
   
   • Managing Urban Environments, particularly to the following sections and sub-sections
   (a) Urban growth:
   • Changing demographic and social structures in MEDCs and the demand for housing
   • Planning to contain urban sprawl
   (c) Congestion:
   • Counterurbanisation, decentralisation and lengthening journeys to work
   • Managing Rural Environments, particularly to the following sections and sub-sections
   (b) Recreation and leisure:
   • Pressure, conflicts and issues
   (c) Settlement:
   • Rural settlements in MEDCs, population turnover, growth, depopulation
   • Responses by local authorities
   • Impacts on rural communities and cultures
   
   A2 question
   
   As this relates to the Synoptic paper, as many different links as possible need to be included, such as:
   • the physical growth of housing into the countryside
   • changes which occur to the traditional economy of the countryside
   • other forms of changing land use that urban sprawl brings
   • the demands which services and amenities pose upon the rural urban fringe
   • the ‘blight’ caused by development in creating wastelands in the rural urban fringe
   
   

   Level 1	An over-generalised answer with a limited range of technical terms and a limited range of synoptic links. Answers will be restricted to looking at one or two main aspects of the physical environment and will not bring into play a great deal of detail from the case study.	0-20
   Level 2	An answer which makes several synoptic links yet still lacks some of the finer details. The answer uses a fair range of technical terms and brings in a significant number of details from the case study (placenames, figures etc.)	21-40
   Level 3	A well-conceived answer that draws in a large number of synoptic links and uses a wide range of technical vocabulary. The case study material is accurately used and integrated into the arguments of the different stages of the answer.	41-60

    

   
   Examiner’s general comments
   
   The case study provides a great deal of material which can back up the general argument of this question. The key definitions provide the necessary technical vocabulary. The material on North America provides the conceptual framework, and the material on London’s south eastern fringe provides the necessary detail. To achieve a higher level of marks, there should be a clear use of some of the statistics, some of the material shown in chart form, especially in from Figures 3 and 8, and the use of place specific material (e.g. decisions made in Epsom and Ewell by the council in relation to the Epsom Hospital Cluster).
   
   
   

2. ‘Examine the changes which are taking place in rural settlements which are located close to large cities in MEDCs’
   (From the Managing Rural Environments Option)
   
   
   
   Mark Scheme
   
   This is also part of the Synoptic paper and will therefore require many different links, such as:
   • the changes brought about by extending the built environment
   • the impact of the increased numbers of commuters
   • social and demographic changes in the community
   • conflicting and greater demands upon rural land (especially for recreation and leisure)
   • changes in service provision in rural communities
   
   

   Level 1	An over-generalised answer with a limited range of synoptic links and technical terms. The answer will lack detailed use of the case study material and will dwell upon just one or two of the aspects of settlement change.	0-20
   Level 2	An answer which makes more synoptic links and uses the case study material more fully. There is also a better understanding of the relationships between cities and their rural fringes.	21-40
   Level 3	An answer which is well-planned and draws upon a wide range of synoptic links, uses a wide range of points about settlement change and uses the case study in a lot of detail. The case study material is well-integrated into the structure of the answer.	41-60

   
   
   
   Examiner’s general comments
   
   The case study has a lot of material which can be used to achieve a high level answer. The key definitions can be drawn upon for accurate use of technical terms, the section on North America provides a conceptual framework, as do some of the charts, tables and models. The material on the London fringe provides the detailed study to provide a place-specific illustration to back up the more general theories. Material needs to be extracted from the maps and diagrams which can also be used to explain changes and back up arguments; Figures 2, 3 and 4, together with the place-specific Figure 5 are particularly useful for this end.
   

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